In ‘Either/Or’, Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard offers readers a detailed analysis of human existence, complete with various thought experiments and passages of dense prose.
Kierkegaard opens the book with a distinction between two ways of life that he labels the aesthetic and the ethical. The former is concerned only with immediate pleasure and gratification, while the latter requires us to consider our duties and responsibilities to others. While both approaches have their merits, Kierkegaard argues that the ethical way of life is ultimately more fulfilling, as it leads us to develop our true potential as human beings.
Ethical vs Aesthetic
Kierkegaard provides a mathematical analogy, positing that there are three distinct spheres of existence which he calls the “aesthetic,” the “ethical,” and the “religious.” He likens these spheres to circles which do not intersect; one can move from one circle into another, but it is impossible to occupy two spheres at once. The individual must choose which circle to enter, and once they have made their choice, they cannot return to the other two spheres.
Kierkegaard goes on to say that humans naturally gravitate towards the aesthetic sphere because it is the easiest of the three. In this sphere, one seeks immediate gratification and lives for momentary pleasure.
While both approaches have their merits, Kierkegaard argues that the ethical way of life is ultimately more fulfilling, as it leads us to develop our true potential as human beings. He provides a number of thought experiments to support this claim, including one in which a man reflects on his life and death; the man realizes that he has only lived in the present, and has ignored his potential to be happy and fulfilled in the future.
Kierkegaard argues that this is the case for most people, who live their lives in a state of Either/Or. They either focus on the present and neglect their potential, or they focus on the future and neglect the present. Either way, they fail to live in the present moment and realize their full potential. Kierkegaard’s point is that we must learn to balance our focus on the present and the future, and to live in the present moment as much as possible.
The first section, Either, is an ostensible defense of the aesthetic viewpoint on life, consisting of a variety of pieces of various genres and subjects that praise continual change and sensory sensations. In one of these publications, Kierkegaard examines an aesthetic vision of life (a narrower sense of the term than today’s understanding) through a lengthy praise of Mozart’s opera, Don Giovanni, written by Victor Emeritus, aesthete, one of Kierkegaard’s numerous aliases. This section also includes The Seducer’s Diary, one of his most well-known works. In the second section – Or, he critiques this shallow view of existence and advocates for an ethical perspective: the nutrition of the spirit, not simply the senses.
There is no room for contemplation or long-term planning; one simply reacts to whatever situation they find themselves in without any regard for future consequences. Though living in this way may seem carefree and fun, Kierkegaard argues that it ultimately leads to dissatisfaction and emptiness.
In contrast, those who choose to live in the ethical sphere are motivated by duty and principle. They forego immediate pleasure in favor of doing what is right, even if it is difficult or painful in the moment. This type of person recognizes that human beings are social creatures who rely on relationships with others in order to lead fulfilling lives.
As such, they act in ways that maintain harmony within their community rather than acting purely out of self-interest. Kierkegaard believes that living ethically is more challenging than living aesthetically, but ultimately more rewarding as it leads to lasting satisfaction rather than mere fleeting pleasure.
As for the religious sphere, he argues that those who choose to live in it are motivated by faith rather than duty or principle. They believe that there is a higher power that governs the world and that through faith in that power they can achieve eternal happiness.
They are not concerned with how their actions may appear to others. Rather, they are focused solely on their own spiritual well-being and seek to live in accordance with their religious beliefs. Such a lifestyle may seem restrictive and boring, but it ultimately leads to satisfaction as it provides a sense of purpose and meaning to the otherwise meaningless existence of the world. Kierkegaard believes that humans cannot find lasting satisfaction in either the aesthetic or ethical spheres because they are both transitory; they are based on changeable desires and beliefs that are constantly in flux. The only way to achieve lasting satisfaction is to live in accordance with an absolute and unchanging truth, which is only possible in the religious sphere.
If you marry, you will regret it; if you do not marry, you will also regret it; if you marry or do not marry, you will regret both; Laugh at the world’s follies, you will regret it, weep over them, you will also regret that; laugh at the world’s follies or weep over them, you will regret both; whether you laugh at the world’s follies or weep over them, you will regret both. Believe a woman, you will regret it, believe her not, you will also regret that; believe a woman or believe her not, you will regret both; whether you believe a woman or believe her not, you will regret both. Hang yourself, you will regret it; do not hang yourself, and you will also regret that; hang yourself or do not hang yourself, you will regret both; whether you hang yourself or do not hang yourself, you will regret both. This, gentlemen, is the sum and substance of all philosophy.
– Kierkegaard