In the period between 1500 and 1850, the military-industrial-scientific complex blossomed in Europe, but why not in India? Why did countries like Britain, France, Germany, and the US leap forward, while China did not? Was it so hard for the Chinese to manufacture machine guns and lay down railroads? In reality, the Chinese, Persians, and … Read more

For most of history, we knew nothing about 99.99 percent of the organisms in the planet – namely, microorganisms. Not because they didn’t matter to us. We all carry billions of single-celled creatures within us. They are our best friends and deadliest enemies. Some digest food and clean our gut, others make us sick. We … Read more

Could history have been different or was it destined to be this way? Perhaps in some ways, a global society was inevitable, when seen from a bird’s eye view across thousands of years, but it is not clear that this global society was inevitable. That is, a world that consists of 2 billion Christians, 1.2 … Read more

Polytheism Polytheism is open-minded, it rarely persecutes ‘heretics’ and ‘infidels.’ Even when polytheists conquered large empires, they did not try to convert anyone. The Romans refused to tolerate the monotheistic god of the Christians, however. They did not require the Christians to give their beliefs up, but they did expect them to respect the empire’s … Read more

We think empires are evil, but are they? An empire is a political order. To qualify as an empire, you must rule over different peoples – each with their unique cultural identity and territory. The other requirement is to have flexible borders and an unlimited appetite. Modern day Britain has well-defined borders, but 100 years … Read more

Money lets people convert everything to almost anything they want. Money is superior to bartering because when there are many strangers, the system doesn’t work. Only a small range of products can be exchanged through a barter system, but a complex economy of goods and services cannot. Some societies tried to find a way around … Read more

The Arrow of History The novels by Charles Dickens teach us that the liberal regimes of 19th century Europe gave much importance to individual freedom, even if it meant throwing poor families in prison, and leaving orphans no choice but to join pickpocket schools. Alexander Solzhenitsyn’s work shows us how Communism’s love for egalitarianism resulted … Read more

History has not been fair. People who are disadvantaged economically will have children who are likely to be disadvantaged economically. The wealthy and the educated will have offspring who are likely to be wealthy and educated. People are not born with an equal chance in the world. But today things are much better. Slavery used … Read more

Football is a sport that children seem to play quite easily, but there is no football gene that they inherited. They can only play because they learned the rules of the game and they live in a place where other children have also learned these rules. All social systems, financial and legal, are based on … Read more